Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences

Earth–rock dams provide cost-effective flood control and water storage through the utilization of locally available materials, making them essential infrastructure for regional safety, agricultural development, and sustainability. Electrical resistivity methods offer an efficient, non-destructive means to detect internal defects and potential hazards within dam bodies, thereby supporting dam safety assessment and service life extension. In this review, we focus on sand and clay, the most commonly used materials in earth–rock dams. We summarize the main methods and instruments for measuring soil resistivity and comparatively analyze the applicability and limitations of different approaches. Emphasis is placed on the key factors influencing soil resistivity, and recent progress in modeling the resistivity of soil materials is reviewed. The results show that soil resistivity parameters can effectively characterize physical and mechanical properties, structural features, and moisture migration behavior, providing an important basis for soil property evaluation. However, current studies are largely based on macroscopic experiments, with limited investigation of microscopic mechanisms and a lack of unified testing standards, leading to discrepancies between theoretical models and measured data. In this review, we aim to provide a theoretical reference for research and engineering applications of resistivity characteristics in earth–rock dam materials.

The authors would like to make the following corrections to the published paper [...]

Employment growth is a central objective of economic policy, yet the role of internal market integration in shaping labor demand remains understudied. This paper examines the impact of the Unified National Market initiative on firm-level employment, utilizing a panel of Chinese listed companies from 2011 to 2023. Our estimates reveal a robust positive relationship between market integration and labor hiring. This impact is heterogeneous, with stronger responses observed in non-state-owned enterprises, labor-intensive sectors, and the more developed eastern region. We provide evidence for two distinct mechanisms: a production scale effect resulting from expanded market access, and a credit channel driven by the relaxation of financing constraints. Additionally, we document that market integration improves the skill composition of employment and increases the labor share of income. These results underscore the importance of reducing inter-regional barriers to achieve employment growth.

Maritime safety is a key element of sustainable maritime transportation, particularly in strait regions with dense vessel traffic and dynamic environmental conditions that increase collision risk. Based on historical records, ship collisions can result in severe human casualties, environmental pollution, cargo and infrastructure damage, operational disruptions, and substantial economic losses; therefore, a reliable and integrated safety assessment is essential to support safe, efficient, and sustainable maritime transportation. This study proposes a novel safety index framework to assess the ship’s collision risk by integrating vessel characteristics, ship encounter conditions, operational time parameters, and oceanographic factors such as currents and waves. The analysis is based on questionnaire data, AIS records, and oceanographic information collected over a one-month period with a three-minute temporal resolution. Case studies are conducted in the Bali Strait and the Lombok Strait using grid-based spatial segmentation to represent spatial risk patterns. Two safety index models are developed. Model I emphasizes vessel, encounter, and temporal factors, while Model II extends the assessment by fully integrating oceanographic conditions. To improve interpretability and practical applicability, the calculated safety index is further transformed into a normalized safety index with values bounded between 0 and 1, allowing for explicit risk classification. A multivariate contribution analysis is applied to identify dominant risk factors. The results show that the maritime risk in both straits is mainly influenced by vessel traffic intensity, sailing hours, days of the week, and environmental conditions. High-risk zones in the Bali Strait are concentrated near Ketapang and Gilimanuk Ports, while elevated risks in the Lombok Strait are observed near Padangbai and Lembar Ports and along the ALKI II shipping route.

This article scientifically addresses the challenges related to data security and stakeholder privacy faced by companies operating in the European Union. These challenges stem largely from the global digital transformation, within which the European Union imposes regulations governing data protection and stakeholder privacy. The digital transformation in the European Union focuses on the integration of people and technology, sustainable development, and the resilience of management systems, which are the pillars of Industry 5.0. From a practical perspective, the paper examines the current level of awareness among employees of the enterprise in Poland regarding data and privacy risk management in today’s economic environment. The paper presents both a theoretical review and, in the empirical section, the results of primary research. The study was conducted in Poland on a sample of 556 enterprises from various economic sectors. The paper begins with Introduction. Background presents a literature review conducted on the conditions for enterprise functioning in the evolving paradigm of Industry 5.0, as well as the fundamental legal requirements regarding data security and stakeholder privacy across business activities. Materials and Methods presents the research methods employed to assess how respondents perceive threats to data security and stakeholder privacy. Results summarizes the research findings. In Discussion, both practical business implications are addressed, and the role of technology and organizational procedures in responsible data and privacy management is highlighted. Furthermore, the importance of creating ethical cyber–physical environments as an element of sustainable enterprise transformation is emphasized. Finally, Conclusions presents the results and key findings regarding the level of awareness among employees of Polish enterprises about data security and stakeholder privacy in the context of digital transformation.

The Lower North River (LNR) exhibits a distinctive anabranching pattern in the Pearl River Basin, China. However, research has predominantly focused on vertical channel adjustments relying on in situ measurements, while the large-scale spatiotemporal dynamics of the anabranching planform have received limited attention. To address this gap, this study quantified the evolution of the anabranching planform from 1990 to 2022 using remote sensing images, focusing on anabranching intensity and island morphology, and analyzed driving factors using hydrological observations. Results revealed three evolutionary phases driven by shifting dominance of human interventions. During the first phase (1990–2004), the LNR experienced a moderate decline in anabranching intensity and widespread shrinkage of river islands, primarily attributed to sediment starvation induced by upstream dams. In the second phase (2004–2013), the decline in anabranching intensity accelerated and the proportion of expanding islands increased, driven by unregulated sand mining and channel regulation. In the third phase (2013–2022), the rapid decline in anabranching intensity decelerated and the islands shifted from a shrinkage-dominated to a stable-dominated state following the implementation of strict mining management and the physical confinement imposed by engineering structures. These findings reveal distinct morphological responses of the LNR to flow–sediment regimes and anthropogenic physical interventions, offering insights into the sustainable management of large anabranching rivers worldwide in the Anthropocene.

This study examines how employee benefit practices link employee well-being with financial sustainability in sustainable organization management. Focusing on Generation Z, it investigates the intersection between meaning attributed to employee benefits and managerial decision-making guided by financial rationality. Drawing on human resources management (HRM) and finance perspectives, employee benefits are conceptualized as mechanisms for balancing human-centered value creation and economic resilience. A qualitative design was used, based on semi-structured interviews with 15 Generation Z employees and 20 human resources (HR) and finance managers in Türkiye. Data were analyzed through thematic analysis and the Gioia methodology to develop an inductive, multi-level framework. The findings indicate that Generation Z employees view employee benefits as psychosocial resources reflecting justice, autonomy, psychological safety, and value alignment—core components of subjective and eudaimonic well-being—while managers assess them primarily through financial sustainability logics such as cost control and return on investment. Overall, meaning- and cost-oriented perspectives emerge as mutually reinforcing within sustainable organizational systems. The study proposes the Meaning–Cost Balance (MCB) Framework, conceptualizing employee benefits as a strategic management mechanism aligning employee well-being with financial resilience. Positioned at the intersection of HRM and financial sustainability, the framework contributes to sustainable organization management and offers a transferable basis for future comparative research.

Food systems are major drivers of global environmental change, accounting for about one-third of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and contributing to land degradation, freshwater depletion, and biodiversity loss. Within this system, post-retail activities generate an estimated 18–20% of total food-related GHG emissions. In Europe, food service is responsible for roughly 12% of total food waste, making collective catering a strategic sector for sustainability interventions. Objective: Through menu design and composition, collective catering services can influence the environmental performance of thousands of meals served daily. This study introduces a novel meal-level scoring system—the App for the Environmental Impact Assessment of Dishes in Collective Catering (EcoRistApp, ERA)—designed to assess and communicate the environmental performance of institutional canteen dishes. Methods: EcoRistApp was developed and applied to a representative selection of first courses, second courses, and side dishes. Environmental impacts were quantified using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) with SimaPro 9.5.5 software and the ReCiPe Midpoint (H) method. Normalized and weighted impact results were aggregated into a composite Environmental Impact Index (EII), which was then translated into a five-color interpretative scale to enhance usability and comprehension. Results: The analysis highlighted marked differences in environmental performance among dishes, largely driven by ingredient type and origin. Plant-based meals, such as lentil soup, consistently achieved lower impact scores, while dishes containing animal-derived ingredients, particularly beef and fish, showed higher impacts across multiple categories. Recipes combining high- and low-impact ingredients demonstrated potential for reducing overall environmental burdens. Conclusions: By converting complex LCA outcomes into an intuitive scoring system, EcoRistApp supports informed decision-making by catering operators and consumers, encourages plant-forward menu strategies, and contributes to the environmental transition of food service systems.

Four lakes near Yellowknife, Canada, show that there’s no one-size-fits-all answer.

Analysis of surface samples from the Chang’e-6 mission suggests that an asteroid may have vaporized parts of the lunar mantle, suppressing volcanic activity on the farside of the Moon.

Plastic particles present in soil are exposed to soil solutions containing a mixture of microbial metabolites, dissolved organic matter, mineral and organic colloids, as well as inorganic ions. These components can interact with plastic particles in different ways that may alter their surface properties and environmental behavior. In this study, we examined how soil solution affects the aggregation kinetics and colloidal stability of nanoplastics made from a soil-biodegradable plastic (poly(butylene adipate-<i>co</i>-terephthalate), PBAT) and a conventional plastic (polyethylene). Without the soil solution, both PBAT and polyethylene nanoplastics aggregated more readily in CaCl₂ than in NaCl, with critical coagulation concentrations of 344 and 284 mM in NaCl and 31 and 36 mM in CaCl₂, respectively. The addition of the soil solution promoted the aggregation of both nanoplastics, as evidenced by the larger aggregate sizes, despite that the critical coagulation concentrations did not decrease correspondingly. Such an increase in aggregate sizes was induced not only by the formation of an eco-corona on nanoplastics, which enhanced aggregation through polymer bridging and attractive patch-charge interactions, but also by the heteroaggregation between nanoplastics and colloids present in the soil solution. These results suggest that interaction with soil solution can promote the aggregation of nanoplastics through eco-corona formation and heteroaggregation, underlining the role of the complex interactions between nanoplastics and their surrounding matrices on the environmental behavior of nanoplastics.

The obesity epidemic is increasingly linked to environmental factors like endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs). Bisphenol A (BPA), a known EDC, has been suspected to be linked to adiposity through activation of peroxisome proliferator activated receptor gamma (PPARγ), a key regulator of adipogenesis. Though many BPA alternatives have been introduced as substitutes, their effects on metabolic health remain unclear. This study aimed to investigate the mechanistic interactions of 11 BPA alternatives with PPARγ and their adipogenic potential. Using a PPARγ reporter assay, we assessed the binding affinity and activation potential of BPA alternatives, followed by X-ray crystallography of two potent activators, 4-benzyloxyphenyl 4-hydroxyphenyl sulfone (BPS4BE) and bisphenol PH (BPPH). Additionally, adipogenesis was assessed via a human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) differentiation assay. Results revealed that the alternatives BPPH and BPS4BE potently activated PPARγ (BMD20 (μM): 0.23 and 0.34 respectively). Both significantly induced adipogenesis and a positive correlation was found between PPARγ activation and adipogenic differentiation. Crystallography revealed distinct binding modes for BPPH and BPS4BE compared to rosiglitazone, indicating partial agonism. These findings raise significant concerns about the safety of BPA alternatives and underscore the need for structure-based risk assessment to ensure safer substitutes.

Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is one of the major plasticizer pollutants, and numerous studies have reported the harmful effects of DEHP on human health. However, the effects of urinary DEHP metabolites on the progression of bladder cancer remain unclear. Here, we aimed to identify the representative chemical and explore its effect and mechanism on bladder cancer progression with epidemiological and experimental methods based on the adverse outcome pathway (AOP). The quantile-based <i>g</i>-computation (QGC) model showed a positive association between urinary plasticizer metabolites and bladder cancer risks in older men (NHANES 2005-2018), with mono(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate (MEOHP, the secondary-metabolite of DEHP) identified as a main driver factor. We treated human bladder cancer cells with MEOHP at environmentally relevant concentrations (10, 100, and 1000 nM) and found that 100 nM MEOHP exposure activated a hybrid EMT (epithelial-mesenchymal transition) phenotype. Mechanically, we confirmed that the environmental dose of MEOHP increased nuclear transposition of YAP and β-catenin (molecular initiating event, MIE), thereby sustaining the hybrid EMT phenotype of bladder cancer cells through a series of key events. Our study first investigated the effects of plasticizer secondary metabolite on bladder cancer progression, highlighting the potential damage to urinary system health caused by the metabolites of environmental chemicals and providing a new perspective for the toxicity assessment of pollutants in the future.

Non-targeted liquid chromatography tandem high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) is increasingly applied for the structure-resolved chemical analysis of dissolved organic matter (DOM). With new developments in MS instrumentation and analysis software, the approach has gained substantial momentum over the past decade. However, achieving high-quality analytical data that is reproducible and comparable across laboratories can be a bottleneck in non-targeted metabolomics and organic matter chemical analysis, especially for data reuse in repository-scale analyses. Understanding the capabilities as well as challenges of comparing LC-MS/MS data from different laboratories is necessary for inferring global trends from public data sets. To illuminate instrumentation factors that drive differences and variability, we used a standardized data analysis pipeline, including classical (CMN) and feature-based molecular networking (FBMN), to analyze data from a ring trial by 24 laboratories on identical sample sets of algal and DOM extracts that were mixed in predefined concentrations and spiked with standards. Our results showed that data sets from similar mass spectrometer types with unified instrument parameters were qualitatively comparable, resolving the same general trends and shared mass spectral features. Interlaboratory comparability was best for high-intensity features, while low-intensity features showed greater detection variability. Our analysis also highlights challenges when comparing data from instruments with different acquisition rates or operating with less standardized methods. Lastly, we provide recommendations for data integration, public data sharing, standardization, and best practices for standardized LC-MS/MS data acquisition, which will be critical for long-term time series and intercomparability of DOM chemical analyses.

Synchronous sulfidogenesis and acidogenesis (SSA) are critical for pollutant removal and resource recovery. However, inefficient electron transfer and metabolic imbalance between acidogenic bacteria and sulfidogens limit SSA performance, especially from mariculture solid wastes (MSW) containing high-strength sulfate. This work unveiled the neglected role and mechanism of rhamnolipid (RL) in modulating microbial interspecies electron transfer for SSA during MSW anaerobic fermentation. RL, at environmentally relevant levels of 20-200 mg/g suspended solids, simultaneously improved sulfide (40.1-87.9%) and short-chain fatty acids (8.0-19.3-fold) yield. Extracellular polymeric substances (EPSs) exhibited higher capacitance and electroactivity to store or transfer electrons in the presence of RL. Proper RL facilitated pili-like filament formation and redox mediator secretion. The flavins and cytochrome c combination was promoted by RL to mediate one-electron transfer with a higher transfer rate via the flavin semiquinone intermediate. RL increased the dipole moment of the α-helix peptide and spontaneously interacted with the C═O of amide groups, enabling efficient electron hopping in EPSs. RL also activated key components in the intracellular electron transfer system, delivering more electron flow to sulfate reductase. Metagenomic and metatranscriptomic analyses verified the differential enrichment of microorganisms and key gene upregulation related to SSA, EPS secretion, quorum sensing, ATP, type IV pili, and electron shuttle synthesis. These findings provide new insight into the roles and interactive mechanisms of biosurfactants in modulating microbial electron transfer.

Whether used as an alternative fuel or a clean feedstock, renewable hydrogen (H₂) could facilitate the deep decarbonization of hard-to-abate sectors, which is essential to meet China's carbon neutrality target. Nevertheless, the nationwide H₂ backbone networks required have not yet been fully investigated. Employing a techno-economic analysis of solar photovoltaic and wind power on a scale of 1 km combined with source-sink matching among potential multisectoral H₂ hubs, this study develops a decision support system (dubbed China Shared Hydrogen Infrastructure Network Enabler (SHINE)) to explore renewable H₂ layouts commensurate with China's climate ambition, accounting for varying degrees of H₂ demand and reuse of oil and gas pipeline corridors. Given total H₂ demand scenarios of 54, 77, and 100 Mt/yr in 2060, the total length of the proposed trunkline networks will reach roughly 11,700, 18,300, and 29,900 km, with a levelized cost of production and transport of 1.55, 1.62, and 1.72 USD/kg, respectively. Additionally, by incorporating the spatial heterogeneities and sectoral disparities of H₂ deployment expansion into the model, distinct policy instruments can be crafted for the shared nationwide H₂ network.

The rapid iteration of electronics and semiconductor technologies has brought convenience to daily life. However, the resulting large-scale production may pose health risks due to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) emissions. Here, we present the first trade-off analysis between PFAS wastewater treatment burdens and associated health benefits in electronics and semiconductor manufacturing and benchmark the costs against market values. Specifically, by 2035, the rapid expansion of these sectors is projected to discharge 4.4-10.9 kilotons of PFAS annually into wastewater, resulting in an estimated upper-bound range of 25-103 million comparative toxic units for human toxicity (CTUh) in the absence of treatment. Achieving the toxicity reduction via granular activated carbon (GAC), ion-exchange resin (IER), or reverse osmosis (RO) membranes will require annual investments of $16.5-50.0 billion across regions in 2035, equivalent to ∼0.5% of the respective electronics market value via IER. Moreover, we find that variations in breakthrough performance substantially alter both economic and environmental burdens, particularly in electronics wastewater, which is dominated by short-chain PFAS, whose limited removal efficiency amplifies these effects. By quantifying the cost-health nexus, our findings provide actionable insights for PFAS governance and reinforce the urgency of globally coordinated efforts to align industrial growth with environmental and public health protection.

Abstract Fully developed thermohaline staircases and intrusions represent the most dramatic and recognizable manifestations of double-diffusive convection in the ocean. These structures are common in the Arctic halocline, where they can be readily identified by their distinct vertical temperature and salinity patterns. This investigation draws attention to a related but subtler phenomenon described here as concealed layering. Although concealed layers have a limited impact on background stratification, they can be highly persistent and laterally coherent over large distances. Our inquiry into their dynamics is motivated by echosounder measurements collected in the upper Arctic. These observations reveal ubiquitous, predominantly horizontal reflectivity patterns in diffusively stratified parts of the water column. However, the vertical temperature and salinity profiles from these locations lack well-defined steps typically associated with staircases and intrusions. The present study is based on a series of direct numerical simulations that illustrate the spontaneous formation of concealed layers in moderately sheared, doubly stratified flows. We argue that concealed layering is a widespread yet unexplored phenomenon that affects high-frequency sound propagation in polar oceans. Concurrently, our simulations support the hypothesis that layers, both concealed and manifest, can be generated by subcritical shear even when double-diffusion alone does not lead to layering.

Abstract Current conceptual theory of the ocean meridional overturning circulation (MOC) describes an interaction between a re-entrant southern channel and a northern sinking region, coupled through a basin with uniform upwelling through flat isopycnals. Near the surface and bottom of the real ocean basin, sloping isopycnals induce flows that these models are unable to resolve by construction. Here, a model that relaxes the flat assumption made on the basin density is proposed, where the basin overturning is related to the meridional gradient of density through a local thermal wind balance. The simple 2D model is tested against idealized 3D simulations from a general circulation model, and is found to reproduce the zonally averaged dynamics. Leveraging the low numerical cost of the model, the effects of vertical mixing and surface buoyancy forcing on the MOC are explored. Results show that the strength and depth of the mid-depth cell generally increase with vertical mixing, consistent with previous studies. For a fixed vertical mixing profile, the depth of the mid-depth cell primarily decreases with the buoyancy contrast across the entire meridional domain, while its strength primarily increases with the shared range of densities between the basin and channel.

ABSTRACT The impacts of extreme precipitation events (EPEs) on society are strongly influenced by their spatial footprint, yet the spatial scales of such events remain underexplored. Here we present the first continent‐wide analysis of the spatial scales of daily EPEs in Australia. We estimate the characteristic spatial scale of EPEs seasonally across the Australian continent using daily station observations and semivariograms. A semivariogram is a spatial statistical function that measures how spatial autocorrelation in precipitation decays with distance. Consistent with global analyses of satellite data, EPEs generally have larger spatial scales at higher latitudes. However, our analysis reveals complex seasonal and geographical dependencies that highlight the role of topography and meteorological regimes. We also analyse EPE spatial scales under different phases of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO). In SON and DJF, southeastern Australia exhibits larger spatial scales during La Niña, although no uniform pattern is observed across the continent. Long‐term changes were analysed using 2070 stations with continuous operation between 1960 and 2023. Southwestern Australia shows a notable reduction in median EPE length scale in most seasons, while eastern regions exhibit a decrease in MAM and an increase in SON. Together, these findings provide a new climatological reference for the spatial scale of EPEs in Australia. These results also highlight the need to better understand the physical factors controlling the spatial scale of precipitation extremes in current and future climates.

To address the slow convergence and sensitivity to a low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the minimum-entropy autofocus (MEA) algorithm in the refocusing of moving targets, this paper proposes a sparsity-assisted minimum-entropy autofocus algorithm. Within the framework of the traditional gradient descent MEA with variable step size, the proposed method introduces soft-thresholding-based sparse reconstruction to make moving targets more prominent and suppress background clutter in the image domain. A joint metric combining image entropy and the Hoyer sparsity measure is then constructed, and a three-point adaptive, variable step-size search is employed to reduce the number of evaluations of the cost function, thereby effectively mitigating clutter interference and significantly accelerating the optimization while maintaining good focusing quality. Simulation and real-data experiments demonstrate that, under complex phase errors and different SNR conditions, the proposed algorithm outperforms the conventional variable-step MEA in terms of image entropy, image sparsity, and runtime, while keeping the phase error estimation accuracy within a small range. These results indicate that the proposed method can achieve satisfactory moving-target focusing performance and exhibits promising engineering applicability.

Reliable knowledge of power transmission tower locations is fundamental for large-scale inspection and asset management in modern power grids. However, in satellite and aerial remote sensing imagery, towers typically appear as small, slender structures embedded in cluttered backgrounds, which leads to frequent missed and false detections. To address this challenge, we propose SCOPE-YOLO, an integrated super-resolution-plus-detection framework tailored for scalable transmission and distribution tower monitoring. In the first stage, low-resolution image patches are enhanced by a Real-ESRGAN ×4 super-resolution frontend, which restores high-frequency lattice details and sharpens tower boundaries. The reconstructed images are then processed by SCOPE-YOLO, a YOLOv11-based detector that incorporates a Cross-Scale Feature Aggregation (CFA) module, a Gather–Distribute (GD) routing mechanism, and a high-resolution P2 detection head, together with SAT and layered inference strategies to strengthen small-object perception under complex backgrounds. Experiments on the public SRSPTD dataset demonstrate that SCOPE-YOLO improves F1 score by 0.051 and raises mAP@0.5 by 10.2 percentage points over the YOLOv11-s baseline, while maintaining a compact model size. Compared with a broad set of state-of-the-art detectors, SCOPE-YOLO achieves the best overall performance, reaching 82.8% mAP@0.5 for power tower detection. Cross-domain evaluation on the GZ-PTD test set further confirms the effectiveness of the super-resolution–detection pipeline: Real-ESRGAN×4@2048 + SCOPE-YOLO increases Recall from 0.8621 to 0.9278 and mAP@0.5 from 0.8365 to 0.9132 relative to the low-resolution baseline, substantially reducing missed detections of small and weak tower targets in real-world scenes.

The Southwest China vortex (SWV) is a high-impact mesoscale cyclonic vortex that typically originates over Sichuan Province, China, and frequently produces hazardous rainfall. Yet systematic knowledge of the structural and microphysical properties of SWV precipitation remains insufficiently quantified. Using Global Precipitation Measurement Dual-frequency Precipitation Radar (GPM/DPR) observations from 2014 to 2022, this study investigates the vertical structure and macro- and microphysical characteristics of SWV precipitation, and quantifies their differences across life-cycle stages and precipitation types. The mature stage is characterized by higher echo tops, stronger radar reflectivity, higher strong-echo altitudes, and larger near-surface rainfall, together with a clearer melting-layer bright band and a stronger post-melting shift toward larger drops and lower number concentrations. The developing stage is weakest and shows the largest fraction of coalescence–breakup balance signatures, whereas the dissipating stage features enhanced evaporation- and breakup-related signals. Among precipitation types, deep strong convection exhibits the greatest vertical extent with enhanced ice/mixed-phase growth; stratiform precipitation produces stronger radar echoes and higher rainfall rates than deep weak convection despite similar echo-top heights; and shallow precipitation is characterized by smaller drops, higher concentrations, and active warm-rain spectral evolution. These findings provide satellite-based constraints for microphysics parameterization evaluation and improved numerical prediction of SWV-related rainfall over complex terrain.

Super-resolution (SR) of remote sensing images (RSIs) is essential for advanced image analysis, yet its progress is challenged by the ill-posed nature of SR and the geometric displacement errors commonly found in paired low-resolution (LR) and high-resolution (HR) training data. These displacements violate the assumptions of Gaussian diffusion models and restrict their effectiveness, especially when the scale gap between LR and HR images is large. To address these issues, we enhance the diffusion Schrödinger bridge (DSB) to exploit its ability to construct diffusion trajectories between arbitrary distributions and develop a progressive DSB (PDSB) framework that incrementally reconstructs HR images from their LR counterparts. The method divides the overall scale change into equal intervals so that small-scale SR results are first generated and then used as conditions for larger-scale reconstruction. Experiments conducted using a dataset built from georeferenced Gaofen-6 (2 m) and Sentinel-2 (10 m) images show that PDSB outperforms the comparison methods in commonly used metrics. Notably, the FID of PDSB is 8.294, which is half that of the second-place method. These results indicate that PDSB effectively mitigates displacement issues, enhances reconstruction accuracy, and demonstrates strong robustness and generalizability for practical RSI applications.

Surface subsidence has grown to be a major geological problem for big and medium-sized cities in the context of urbanization and climate change. Changchun, a city of moderate size and rapid development, was chosen as the study region for this project. The Enhanced Permanent Scatterer Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (E-PS-InSAR) technique was used based on Sentinel-1A imagery to gather time-series surface deformation information in order to perform long-term, high-precision monitoring and a mechanistic study of surface deformation in urban–rural integration areas. Subsequently, temperature and land-use type data were then integrated for a thorough investigation using techniques including correlation analysis and functional fitting. The following are the primary conclusions: (1) The E-PS-InSAR technique integrating both PS and DS targets can significantly improve the density of monitoring points compared to traditional methods, providing the complete spatial coverage. (2) Changchun has an average annual subsidence rate of −0.14 mm and an average cumulative subsidence of −0.08 mm. The highest cumulative subsidence is up to −41.31 mm, and the maximum subsidence rate is −17.27 mm/yr. (3) Surface subsidence was correlated with land use types, and cultivated land was the primary contributor to subsidence. (4) Surface subsidence exhibits distinct seasonal fluctuations, and climatic factors exhibit a lagged influence on surface subsidence. These results are crucial for safe infrastructure operation, urban planning, and promptly preventing geological dangers in mid-sized cities.