Physics

Dermatomyositis creates a clinical demand for non-invasive, quantitative muscle weakness assessment, which can be achieved by decomposing neuromotor information from surface electromyography (sEMG). However, the absence of a stable electrode interface compatible with pathologically xerotic skin has hindered this approach. Here, we develop a conformable neuromotor electrode interface that overcomes this via molecular engineering, exhibiting an ultrasoft modulus (∼ 2.13 kPa), low impedance (∼ 0.9 kΩ at 1 kHz), and stable electrical retention over 7 days. This interface enables the acquisition of high-fidelity sEMG from dermatomyositis patients with low baseline noise (< 2 µV root mean square) and high inter-channel signal correlation, allowing robust decomposition of neuromotor biomarkers including motor unit count, action potential amplitude, and firing rate. Clinically, our multi-biomarker quantification strategy shows strong agreement with gold standard assessments. Moreover, our approach can detect subtle interpatient variations like early recruitment patterns, enabling personalized treatment beyond the clinical gold standard. This work establishes a transformative platform for precise muscle weakness evaluation, overcoming the limitations of needle electromyography and subjective clinical scales.

ABSTRACT Electrochemical nitrate reduction (NO 3 RR) under ambient conditions offers a sustainable route for ammonia (NH 3 ) synthesis; however, its efficiency is restricted by the kinetic mismatch between water dissociation and nitrate hydrogenation. Here, we design Ag/CoNiS heterostructures in which Ag loading density programs interfacial confinement to regulate hydrogen spillover from CoNiS water‐activation domains to Ag‐associated nitrate/nitrogen oxide (NO x ) intermediates, thereby coupling * H generation, relay, and deep nitrate hydrogenation. The optimized Ag M /CoNiS achieves an NH 3 yield of 22.31 mg h −1 cm −2 with 99.13% Faradaic efficiency. In situ Raman, distribution of relaxation times (DRT) analysis, hydrogen/deuterium (H/D) isotope experiments, and tert‐butanol (TBA) perturbation tests reveal that the confined Ag–CoNiS interface regulates interfacial water and establishes a balanced * H supply–consumption regime, thereby suppressing competing hydrogen evolution. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations further show that Ag facilitates nitrate deoxygenation, whereas excessive Ag coverage weakens Co/Ni‐centered water activation, explaining the volcano‐type activity trend. Coupling NO 3 RR with the sulfide oxidation reaction (SOR) further enables a low‐voltage NO 3 RR||SOR electrolyzer, requiring only 0.70 V at 50 mA cm −2 for energy‐saving co‐production of ammonia and sulfur.

ABSTRACT Aqueous Zn–ion batteries (AZIBs) are promising for grid‐scale energy storage but are limited by poor Zn anode reversibility due to dendrite growth and water‐driven parasitic reactions. Although crystallographic texture regulation based on Bravais law can guide Zn plating/stripping, selective facet screening often leaves unprotected facets vulnerable to the parasitic side reactions. This inherent trade‐off in conventional Bravais law‐based texturing strategies leads to unstable and transient texture evolution especially under practical conditions. In this study, we propose a decoupled electrolyte design that simultaneously enables facet‐selective texture control and global suppression of water activity using a formamide (FA) cosolvent and a trace 1‐butyl‐3‐methylimidazolium cation (Bmim + ) additive. Bmim + additive preferentially adsorbs on the Zn(101) facet, retarding its growth and directing Zn plating/stripping toward a (101)‐textured mode, while FA suppresses the bulk/interfacial water activity, thereby suppressing interfacial side reactions on non‐targeted facets. This hierarchical design ensures sustained Zn(101)‐textured electroredox with markedly improved reversibility, delivering 1700 h lifespan in Zn||Zn symmetric cells at 5 mA cm −2 , 5 mAh cm −2 , and 5000 cycles in Zn||I 2 full cells with 79.55% capacity retention at 0.5 A g −1 . Notably, a 1.4 Ah pouch cell further validates the scalability of the proposed decoupling principle for practical AZIBs.

Photodynamic therapy (PDT)-based photoimmunotherapy represents a promising modality for cancer treatment, combining the precision of PDT with the sustained efficacy of immunotherapy. A key innovation in this field involves the use of organic photosensitizers to induce immunogenic pyroptosis. However, the fundamental question of whether type I and type II PDT elicit equally potent immune responses remains unresolved. To address this, we developed a series of A-D-A structured organic photosensitizers via rational donor-acceptor engineering. This molecular strategy enables precise control over the photodynamic pathway by fine-tuning the intramolecular charge transfer strength, thereby establishing a platform for systematically comparing their immunogenic potential. Our mechanistic investigations reveal a critical distinction: type I-dominant photosensitizers are more effective than their type II-dominant counterparts at triggering caspase-1-mediated pyroptosis. This pyroptotic cascade stimulates the release of damage-associated molecular patterns and pro-inflammatory factors, culminating in potent immune activation. As a result, the leading type I photosensitizer is more capable of inducing a systemic antitumor immune response and suppressing distant tumors under a low-power 808 nm photoirradiation. Overall, this work not only decouples the immunogenic roles of type I and type II photodynamics but also provides a rational design strategy for advanced photoimmunotherapy agents.

Bottom-up micro/nanofabrication complements photolithography in multilayer, 3D, and cost-effective manufacturing, but lacks resist patterning technology with photoresist-level reproducibility, processability, and universality. Here, we explore a surface-selective nucleation (SSN) effect to derive polymeric resist patterns with nanoscale resolution, inherent 3D compatibility, low defect density, clean lift-off, and broad applicability across fabrication platforms. The SSN phenomenon is achieved through solution-phase polymerization of dual-ended acrylic monomers on prepatterned substrates and surface-mediated creation of area-dependent nucleation barriers using adsorption inhibitors and chain terminators, which synergistically modulate surface and bulk free energy of nucleation, respectively. The resulting resist forms a coherent resin film physically adhered to the substrate, while featuring tunable thickness (13-150 nm) and minimal surface roughness (0.91 nm). This method delivers 15 nm linewidth patterning with 99.97% coverage across wafer-scale arrays within 10 s and demonstrates high compatibility with mainstream thin-film deposition techniques (e.g., e-beam evaporation, sputtering, and atomic layer deposition).

ABSTRACT The interfacial defect challenge between perovskite and electron transport layer (ETL) in inverted perovskite solar cells have become a critical bottleneck for achieving concurrent high efficiency and stability in the process of industrialization. We developed a novel multifunctional integrated polymer semiconductor material P4N‐Cl as an interface interlayer between perovskite and [6,6]‐phenyl‐C 61 ‐butyric acid methyl ester. Various functional groups including carbonyl group, Cl atom and sp 2 ‐N atom in the polymer backbone effectively passivate defects at the perovskite interface through a synergistic coordination mechanism and significantly suppress non‐radiative recombination losses. Simultaneously, the robust interfacial binding at the heterointerface further optimizes the energy level alignment at the perovskite/ETL interface and enhances charge carrier dynamics. The inverted PSCs based on the P4N‐Cl multifunctional layer achieved a champion efficiency of 26.20% and a high open‐circuit voltage of 1.21 V. The target devices retained 96.2% and 90.2% of their initial power conversion efficiency after 2016 h aging in ambient air (40%–60% relative humidity) and 1500 h maximum power point tracking at 65°C under 1‐sun illumination in nitrogen, respectively. This “one‐stop” design provides exciting research prospects for constructing a new generation of commercially viable perovskite solar cells with high efficiency and long‐term operation stability of devices.

ABSTRACT Owing to weak spin‐orbit coupling, molecular semiconductors are among the few materials supporting room‐temperature spin functionality, yet their low spin‐transport efficiency ( η s , ∼5%) limits applications. Here, we report molecular spintronic devices featuring vertically asymmetric nanocolumn channels formed by phase separation. These channels confine spins and generate built‐in electric fields, boosting room‐temperature η s to 20%—the highest value reported to date, over five times that of unstructured films. Simultaneously, the nanocolumn channels induce pronounced bias‐dependent asymmetry, with η s of 20% at +0.2 V versus 1% at −0.2 V, yielding a record asymmetry factor, significantly outperforming other material systems (e.g., metal oxides, 2D materials, conventional molecular/inorganic semiconductors). This dual achievement of record‐high efficiency and strong asymmetry establishes a platform for new spintronic functionalities. As a proof of concept, we demonstrate its potential for information‐secure applications via spin‐signal encryption elements and two‐stage spin true random number generators, integrating structural design with spintronic operation.

ABSTRACT Dielectric capacitors offering ultrafast charge–discharge capability and superior reliability are essential for advanced electronic systems, but achieving both high energy density and efficiency within simple and eco‐friendly compositions remains a great challenge. Here, guided by machine learning, we achieve high‐efficiency and thermally stable capacitive energy storage in strontium titanate‐based ceramics. Through synergistic local structural engineering and optimized fabrication process, the materials exhibit enhanced polarization, reduced hysteresis loss, and improved breakdown strength. The designed materials deliver an ultrahigh energy density of 10.69 J cm −3 with a near‐ideal efficiency of ∼97% and a record high figure of merit of 392 J cm −3 at room temperature, and retains high performance at 150°C with a figure of merit of 152 J cm −3 and an efficiency of ∼94%. This remarkable performance arises from the incorporation of Bi 3+ ions with high polarizability at the A‐sites of strontium titanate quantum paraelectrics, which breaks structural symmetry and induces lattice and octahedral distortions, leading to the formation of nanoscale polar clusters with highly dynamic fluctuations. These findings establish a compositionally simple, environmentally benign pathway for developing dielectrics with superior energy storage capability and thermal stability, offering new opportunities for high‐performance capacitive energy storage systems.

ABSTRACT Thrombotic disorders are a leading cause of cardiovascular mortality worldwide; however, real‐time, point‐of‐care monitoring technologies for timely detection of evolving coagulopathies remain inaccessible. Wearable, minimally invasive tracking of thrombo‐inflammatory activity could enable earlier risk assessment and more effective therapy monitoring than conventional episodic blood tests. Here, we present a reagent‐free, wearable electrochemical platform that integrates an on‐chip Prussian Blue (PB) redox transducer with a signal‐off molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) layer and a biocompatible hydrogel microneedle (HMN) array for interstitial fluid (ISF) sampling, enabling direct electrochemical detection of thrombo‐inflammatory biomarkers. The electrochemical PB/MIP (e‐MIP) biosensor was configured to quantify thrombin (thrombotic biomarker) as well as interleukin‐6 (IL‐6) and tumor necrosis factor‐α (TNF‐α) (inflammatory biomarkers) directly in dermal ISF extracted via the integrated HMNs. The wearable e‐MIP was characterized in vitro and ex vivo, where porcine skin tests preserved linearity and achieved limits of detection (LODs) of 0.26 ng mL − 1 for thrombin and ≤ 0.41 pg mL − 1 for IL‐6 and TNF‐α, confirming sensitive performance in a skin model. Also, selectivity studies against potential interferents (e.g., prothrombin or cardiac troponins) were conducted to assess the possible cross‐reactivity. in vivo, HMN‐integrated patches applied to lipopolysaccharide (LPS)–challenged rats sampled ISF and delivered it to the e‐MIP, which captured the rise‐and‐fall kinetics of thrombin and IL‐6 over 0–24 h. The results were validated against parallel enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) performed on plasma collected at corresponding time points. Its versatile architecture and demonstrated in vivo performance position it as a promising platform that can enable early thrombotic risk assessment and therapeutic monitoring, with potential applications in personalized cardiovascular management following clinical validation.

Homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis represent two frontiers and core areas of research in organic synthesis. Historically, these two catalytic regimes have developed along parallel, largely independent trajectories. Recognizing their inherent complementarity, particularly in terms of activity, selectivity, and recoverability, breaking down the barriers between homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis to construct novel catalytic systems that integrate high activity, excellent selectivity, robust stability, and ease of recovery has long been a pursued goal in catalysis science. As an emerging strategy, homogeneous-heterogeneous integrated catalysis has opened new avenues for addressing this challenge. This review systematically summarizes cutting-edge advances in this field from four distinct strategic perspectives: (i) Mixed homogeneous-heterogeneous dual catalytic systems; (ii) Heterogeneous catalyst-promoted homogeneous catalytic systems; (iii) Homogeneous-heterogeneous bifunctional catalytic systems; and (iv) Switchable homogeneous-heterogeneous catalytic systems. By highlighting representative examples and mechanistic insights, this review also aims to provide new insights into the efficient transformation of challenging substrates and the construction of complex, high-value chiral compounds in organic synthesis.

As the most applied nanozymes, the catalytic mechanism of oxidoreductase (OR)-like nanomaterials has received widespread attention over the past decades. Despite of the large efforts, their catalytic mechanism is currently abundant but still complicated, which restricts further development. Rather than the common mechanistic discussion simply classified by material type or regulatory method, this review deepens the analysis on the catalytic mechanism of OR-like nanozymes through a detailed overview along their reaction pathways. The electron transfer sequence, substrate adsorption, reactive intermediate generation/transformation, and product desorption in the catalytic pathway of OR-like nanozymes are explicitly investigated and compared with their natural counterparts. The root causes that determine their catalytic activity, specificity, and sustainability are highlighted. Moreover, the superiority of the catalytic mechanism-tailored OR-like nanozymes in various applications is highlighted. Finally, the future prospects of catalytic mechanism research are outlined, providing inspiration for the catalytic pathway clarification, activity improvement, specificity exploration, mechanism study at actual scenarios, and machine learning integration. It is anticipated that this review will promote a thorough and consistent understanding on the catalytic mechanism of OR-like nanozymes.

ABSTRACT Anode‐free Li batteries employing ultra‐thick cathodes offer exceptional volumetric energy density, yet are hindered by side reactions and limited Li reservoirs. This study develops an anode‐free pouch cell using a 3D‐printed ultra‐thick cathode (120 mg cm ‒2 ) and a dual‐salt/dual‐solvent electrolyte. The electrolyte forms an anion‐rich solvation structure, fostering an elastic‐plastic solid‐electrolyte interphase layer that enables highly reversible Li plating/stripping on bare Cu current collectors and stable prolonged cycling, even under low temperature conditions. The configuration delivers energy densities of 1,308 Wh L ‒1 and 424 Wh kg ‒1 , alongside a remarkable areal capacity of 19.11 mAh cm ‒2 . This work establishes a scalable and cost‐effective technical route for high‐energy, safe anode‐free batteries, which is expected to expedite their commercialization in electric aviation and the fast‐growing low‐altitude economy.

ABSTRACT Ag 2 Se is widely recognized as a leading n‐type thermoelectric material for flexible and wearable applications owing to its narrow band gap, intrinsically low lattice thermal conductivity, and unusual room‐temperature plasticity. This review systematically summarizes recent advances in Ag 2 Se‐based thermoelectrics, beginning with its fundamental crystal structures, defect chemistry, and electronic band features that govern its semiconducting and superionic transport behavior. Advanced performance‐enhancement strategies are discussed in detail, including nanostructuring, stoichiometry tuning, doping, and the incorporation of inorganic or organic second phases. The progress in fabrication techniques, including vacuum‐assisted filtration, screen printing, magnetron sputtering, thermal evaporation, and additive manufacturing, has also been highlighted. Scalability, flexibility, and mechanical durability are emphasized. Furthermore, the assembly and application of Ag 2 Se‐based flexible thermoelectric devices are reviewed, covering thermoelectric generators, Peltier coolers, electronic skins, and photo‐thermoelectric hybrids. These devices demonstrate strong potential for energy harvesting, localized cooling, and smart sensing. Additionally, the challenges of device stability, large‐area integration, and multifunctional system design are assessed. This review links material‐level insights with device‐level applications to accelerate the deployment of Ag 2 Se‐based thermoelectrics in sustainable energy and wearable electronics.

ABSTRACT Organic semiconductor bulk‐heterojunction nanoparticles have emerged as promising photocatalysts, due to their strong visible absorption in the Vis–NIR region, excellent optical/electronic adjustability, and spatially abundant interfaces for charge carrier separation. However, organic semiconductors generally suffer from inferior crystallinity and high lattice's susceptibility to molecular vibrations, which leads to the localization of separated charge carriers and severe recombination in nanoparticles, limiting the further improvement of photocatalytic H 2 evolution rate. Herein, a methoxy‐functionalized electron acceptor, ITIC‐OMe, is developed and presents enhanced crystallinity, more compact molecular packing and weaker electron–phonon coupling, compared to the parent ITIC. This enables ZnTPP‐3O:ITIC‐OMe bulk‐heterojunction nanoparticles to afford more ordered molecular stacking, reduced charge transfer resistance, and inhibited charge back transfer for triplet state formation, thereby suppressing charge carrier recombination and facilitating charge transport to the nanoparticle surface for proton reduction. Consequently, the photocatalyst based on ZnTPP‐3O:ITIC‐OMe bulk‐heterojunction nanoparticles achieves an impressive hydrogen evolution rate up to 1017.7 mmol g −1 h −1 under AM 1.5G illumination, which is the record for organic photocatalysts so far. It highlights that suppressing charge carrier recombination via finely molecular design is a powerful route to enhance the photocatalytic H 2 evolution performance.

ABSTRACT The exploration of marine environments is crucial, yet the extreme conditions of the deep‐sea, combined with the segregated signal processing in current sensor technologies, lead to bulky systems, high energy consumption, and significant latency, which severely constrains the development of real‐time intelligent perception systems underwater. Herein, we developed a neuromorphic floating‐gate transistor (NFT) that integrates both electrical and optical memory functionalities, emulating simultaneously visual and auditory synaptic behaviors within a single unit, thus enabling in‐memory dual‐mode processing of visual‐auditory signals. Electrically, it achieves rapid switching (∼14 µs), high on/off ratio (10 6 ), and robust endurance (&gt;10 4 cycles). This enables high‐accuracy (88%) classification of seafloor minerals and rocks via sonar echo processing using a convolutional neural network (CNN). Optically, the NFT exhibits tunable synaptic weight modulation from short‐term to long‐term plasticity under 405–808 nm laser pulses. Leveraging the low‐attenuation green‐light window in seawater, the system, combined with RGB denoising and green‐channel enhancement preprocessing, realizes 80% accuracy in marine biological image recognition. This synergistic electro‐optical in‐memory computing architecture provides an efficient, low‐power, and compact hardware solution for intelligent perception in complex underwater environments.

ABSTRACT Designing thermoelectric materials that combine high conversion efficiency with mechanical robustness remains challenging—especially in metavalent‐bonded chalcogenides, where weak bonds yield intrinsically low lattice thermal conductivity yet compromise mechanical integrity. Here we present an entropy‐enabled defect architecture in SnTe‐based alloys that steers hierarchical defect evolution—from 0D substitutional clusters to 1D dislocations and 3D coherent nanoprecipitates—enabling multiscale regulation of phonon transport and strengthening mechanisms. Broadband phonon scattering depresses lattice thermal conductivity to 0.26 W·m −1 ·K −1 at 873 K, while coherent (Cd,Ge)Se nanoprecipitates and dislocation networks establish effective load‐transfer and pinning pathways, elevating the yield strength to 220 MPa, an improvement of ∼100 MPa (≈83%) relative to pristine SnTe (120 MPa), while retaining reasonable plasticity. In parallel, modest band‐structure optimization through compositionally complex alloying within the entropy‐stabilized matrix improves the power factor. Benefiting from these synergies, the optimized composition Sn 0.91 Cd 0.03 Sb 0.09 Te(GeSe) 0.25 delivers a peak figure of merit of 1.7 and device efficiencies of 7.2% (single‐leg) and 5.7% (multi‐leg). This work establishes a generalizable pathway to strong, efficient thermoelectric materials, particularly applicable to metavalent bonding systems.

(110) substrates reveals a complex evolution of both the crystal and ferroelectric domain structures as well as the magnetic order. For films thicker than ∼5 nm, the structure remains rhombohedral, but the lattice mismatch is accommodated by the formation of 71° ferroelastic-closure domains, rather than misfit dislocations, followed by the formation of 109° domains. For films ≲ 5 nm, a mixed-phase coexistence of a polar, rhombohedral-like (R3c) phase and an antipolar (Pnma) phase is observed. Scanning nitrogen-vacancy magnetometry reveals a change in the propagation vector of the spin cycloid with thickness. It evolves from parallel to the ferroelectric domains for 50 nm thick samples and thicker and reorients to perpendicular to the ferroelectric domains for intermediate thicknesses, and vanishes for films ≲ 5 nm, which is reflected in macroscopic spin transport measurements and supported by the simulations. Ultimately, this work provides a deep understanding of the role of film thickness and electrostatic boundary conditions on the ferroelectric domain configuration and, therefore on the spin cycloid to design the device with electric field control antiferromagnetism.

ABSTRACT The photovoltaic performance and stability of all‐inorganic perovskites are critically compromised by halide vacancy defects and concomitant ion migration, both arising from their intrinsically soft lattice and mixed ionic‐electronic character. To simultaneously address both issues, we introduce sodium 2,3‐dimercapto‐1‐propanesulfonate (DPS), a sulfonated thiol molecule that acts as a multifunctional chelating clamp. Unlike conventional monodentate passivators, DPS employs a bidentate chelation strategy: its two thiol groups coordinatively bind to undercoordinated Pb 2+ sites, forming a stable five‐membered ring. The flexible three‐carbon linker enables conformational adaptation to heterogeneous grain‐boundary microenvironments, while the sulfonate group provides electrostatic anchoring and spatial orientation, guiding the thiol moieties toward targeted defect sites. Moreover, DPS retards the crystallization kinetics during film annealing, resulting in enlarged grains, reduced residual strain, and enhanced film homogeneity. This synergistic integration of molecular adaptability, chelate‐based defect passivation, and crystallization regulation yields CsPbI 3‐x Br x perovskite films with lower trap density, prolonged carrier lifetime, and favorable energy alignment. Consequently, solar cells incorporating DPS achieve a champion power conversion efficiency of 22.28%, among the highest for all‐inorganic perovskite devices, alongside substantially enhanced operational and environmental stability. The strategy underscores the potential of tailored molecular design for enabling efficient and stable perovskite photovoltaics with straightforward processability.

Abstract E-Ba2Cu3O7−δ (REBCO) coated conductors are promising candidates&amp;#xD;for next-generation high-field fusion magnets operating above 20 T. To meet the&amp;#xD;structural and electromagnetic demands of such environments, various cabling concepts&amp;#xD;based on REBCO coated conductors have been developed. However, inadequate&amp;#xD;mechanical protection can significantly degrade their transverse load tolerance under&amp;#xD;practical operating conditions. In particular, multiaxial stresses—such as axial&amp;#xD;pre-strain combined with transverse loading—may induce irreversible performance&amp;#xD;degradation, yet their coupled effects remain poorly understood, limiting reliable&amp;#xD;application of REBCO-based conductors in high-field fusion systems.&amp;#xD;In this study, the transverse compression behavior of a double-casing conductor&amp;#xD;(DCC) with a twisted stacked-tape cable (TSTC) was systematically investigated&amp;#xD;under monotonic, cyclic, and axial preload conditions. Real-time strain monitoring&amp;#xD;was enabled by fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors, rigorously calibrated to decouple&amp;#xD;mechanical, thermal, and clamping-induced strains. This approach allowed precise&amp;#xD;quantification of the actual strain state, demonstrating the strong potential of FBG&amp;#xD;diagnostics for in-situ integration into future conductor architectures.&amp;#xD;Experimental results show that the DCC strand sustained a critical transverse&amp;#xD;load of 1188 kN/m without axial pre-strain. However, this tolerance dropped by over&amp;#xD;52% when 0.25% axial pre-strain was applied. Finite element analysis revealed a&amp;#xD;peak compressive strain of 0.36% at the critical load. Under six-around-one contact,&amp;#xD;monotonic loading of DCC-8 exhibited a degradation threshold of 1095 kN/m, while&amp;#xD;fully superconducting DCC-25 demonstrated superior fatigue resistance under cyclic&amp;#xD;loading, maintaining less than 5% degradation after 500 cycles at 1125 kN/m.&amp;#xD;These findings highlight the necessity of incorporating multiaxial stress criteria into&amp;#xD;conductor design and confirm DCC architecture with FBG diagnostics as a robust&amp;#xD;candidate for next-generation high-field fusion applications.&amp;#xD;

Abstract High-temperature superconducting (HTS) maglev boasts advantages such as self-stabilization, energy efficiency, and environmental friendliness, and thus holds promising development prospects in fields like rail transit, superconducting bearings, and superconducting motors. Equivalent magnetic susceptibility is an important electromagnetic property of HTS bulks. In this paper, the functional relationship describing the influence of magnetic field on the equivalent magnetic susceptibility of HTS bulks is derived, and a three-dimensional mechanical calculation model for HTS bulks that avoids solving for currents is established. By establishing a controllable magnetic field environment, research is conducted on the influence of the direction and magnitude of the magnetic field on the magnetic susceptibility of HTS bulks. The research shows that within the range of magnetic fields for HTS maglev engineering applications, there is a logarithmic functional relationship between the equivalent magnetic susceptibility and the magnetic field intensity, and a cosine functional relationship between the equivalent magnetic susceptibility and the magnetic field direction. Furthermore, when the angle between the magnetic field direction and the c-axis of the HTS bulk is the same, the magnetic field direction still has an impact on the magnetic susceptibility of the superconducting bulk. Then, the magnetic susceptibility model and the three-dimensional force calculation model are verified through experiments. Compared with the existing Jc model, the application of the magnetic susceptibility model to HTS magnetic force calculation can significantly reduce the computation time. Therefore, when it is applied to the three-dimensional optimization of superconducting levitation systems, the model exhibits significant efficiency advantages. We integrated the genetic algorithm to develop an intelligent iterative optimization program. This program achieves a 3.6% improvement in levitation force, which not only verifies the engineering application value of the proposed model but also confirms its effectiveness in the rapid optimization of maglev systems. This study not only derives the equivalent magnetic permeability of HTS bulks but also provides theoretical guidance for the optimization of magnetic fields in HTS maglev systems.